Glossary
Absorption
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Acidic peptides
Peptides that contain a higher number of acidic amino acids often influencing charge and solubility.
Active site
The region on an enzyme or receptor where binding and activity occur.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
The primary energy-carrying molecule in cells.
Affinity
The strength of the interaction between a peptide and its target receptor or binding site.
Agonist
A molecule that binds to a receptor and triggers a biological response.
Alanine
A small, non-polar amino acid often found in protein structures.
Alpha helix
A spiral-shaped structure that is a common folding pattern in proteins.
Amide bond
The chemical bond that connects amino acids in a peptide chain.
Amine group
A functional group containing nitrogen, found in amino acids and peptides.
Amino acid sequence
The specific order in which amino acids are arranged to form a peptide or protein.
Amphiphilic peptides
Peptides that contain both water-attracting (hydrophilic) and fat-attracting (hydrophobic) regions.
Amylin
A peptide hormone involved in regulating blood glucose levels alongside insulin.
Anabolic
Refers to processes or compounds that promote tissue building, especially muscle.
Analog
A compound that is structurally similar to another but slightly modified for a specific function.
Angiogenesis
The formation of new blood vessels, often stimulated during healing or tissue repair.
Anion exchange chromatography
A lab technique used to separate peptides based on their charge properties.
Antagonist
A molecule that binds to a receptor but blocks or reduces its activity.
Anti-aging
A compound that is structurally similar to another but slightly modified for a specific function.
Antibody
A protein made by the immune system to recognize and neutralize foreign substances like viruses or bacteria.
Antimicrobial peptide
Peptides that help defend the body by disrupting the membranes of harmful microorganisms.
Antimicrobial resistance
The ability of bacteria or other microbes to resist the effects of antimicrobial treatments.
Apoptosis
A natural process of programmed cell death that helps the body remove damaged or unneeded cells.
Apoptotic pathways
Biological signals that trigger the process of apoptosis within cells.
Arginine
An amino acid involved in nitric oxide production and blood flow regulation.
Aromatic amino acids
Amino acids like phenylalanine and tryptophan that contain a ring-like, aromatic structure.
Autoimmune response
An immune reaction in which the body mistakenly targets and attacks its own tissues.
Beta sheet
A flat, ribbon-like folding pattern found in many proteins, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
Beta-turn
A tight loop in a peptide chain that allows the direction of the chain to reverse.
Bioactive
Describes a compound that has a biological effect on cells, tissues, or organisms.
Bioavailability
The amount of a compound that enters circulation and is available for use by the body.
Bioconjugation
The chemical process of linking two molecules, such as a peptide and a drug or tag, for targeting or tracking.
Biodegradable
Able to be broken down by natural biological processes into harmless components.
Bioinformatics
The use of computer tools to analyze biological data, such as peptide sequences and structures.
Biological half-life
The time it takes for half of a compound to be cleared from the body or system.
Biomarkers
Biological indicators used to measure or track a condition, treatment response, or health status.
Biosynthesis
The natural process by which living cells produce peptides, proteins, or other molecules.
Biotinylation
A technique where a biotin molecule is attached to a peptide for easier detection or purification.
Blood-brain barrier (BBB)
A selective barrier that controls which substances can pass from the blood into the brain.
Bolus
A single, concentrated dose of a compound administered all at once, often by injection.
Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs)
Essential amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, valine) that help support muscle repair and energy.
Breakpoint
The point at which a biological process, such as fat loss or hormone response, shows a measurable change or limit.
Bypass metabolism
When a compound avoids the liver’s first-pass breakdown, allowing more of it to reach circulation.
CRH (Corticotropin-releasing hormone)
A hormone involved in the body’s stress response, triggering the release of ACTH from the pituitary gland.
Calcitonin
A peptide hormone that helps regulate calcium levels in the blood by reducing bone resorption.
Caloric restriction
A dietary approach that reduces calorie intake without malnutrition, often studied for its anti-aging effects.
Capillary permeability
The ability of small blood vessels to allow fluids and molecules, like peptides, to pass through their walls.
Carbohydrates
Organic molecules that serve as a source of energy and are often part of glycoprotein or glycopeptide structures.
Carrier proteins
Proteins that transport substances, including peptides or hormones, across membranes or through the bloodstream.
Cartilage repair
The regeneration or healing of joint cartilage, a process supported by certain peptides in research.
Catabolic
Refers to processes that break down molecules into smaller units, often releasing energy.
Catalytic activity
The ability of an enzyme or molecule to speed up a chemical reaction without being consumed.
Cell adhesion
The process by which cells attach to each other or to surfaces, often mediated by proteins and peptides.
Cell differentiation
The process by which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function.
Cell membrane receptors
Proteins on the surface of cells that peptides bind to in order to trigger biological responses.
Cellular signaling
The way cells communicate through chemical signals like peptides to coordinate functions and responses.
Chaperone proteins
Proteins that help other proteins fold correctly and maintain stability under stress.
Charge distribution
The arrangement of electrical charges across a molecule that affects how it interacts with other molecules.
Chemotaxis
The movement of cells toward or away from a chemical signal, often guided by peptides or cytokines.
Chiral center
An atom, typically carbon, that has four different groups attached, giving rise to molecular handedness (chirality).
Chiral molecules
Molecules that have a "left" and "right" version (mirror images) due to the presence of chiral centers.
Cholesterol metabolism
The body’s process of producing, transporting, and breaking down cholesterol—some peptides influence this.
Chondrocytes
Cells found in cartilage that maintain and repair cartilage tissue.
Chronic inflammation
Long-term, low-grade inflammation that can contribute to aging and disease; some peptides help modulate this.
Circular dichroism
A lab technique used to study the folding and secondary structure of peptides and proteins.
Cis-trans isomerism
A type of structural variation where the spatial arrangement of atoms differs, affecting peptide shape and function.
Cleavage
The enzymatic cutting of a peptide or protein into smaller fragments, often activating or deactivating the molecule.
Clinical trials
Structured research studies that evaluate the safety and effectiveness of medical treatments, including peptides.
Coenzymes
Non-protein molecules that help enzymes function, often involved in energy and metabolic processes.
Collagen
A structural protein in skin, joints, and connective tissue; some peptides help stimulate its production.
Competitive inhibition
When a molecule competes with another for binding to an enzyme or receptor, blocking its activity.
Complement system
A part of the immune system that enhances the ability to clear pathogens, involving protein-peptide interactions.
Conformation
The three-dimensional shape or structure of a peptide or protein, critical to its function.
Conjugated peptides
Peptides that are chemically linked to another molecule, like a drug, for improved delivery or targeting.
Covalent bonds
Strong chemical bonds formed when atoms share electrons—these link amino acids in peptides.
Covalent bonds
Strong chemical bonds formed when atoms share electrons—these link amino acids in peptides.
Covalent bonds
Strong chemical bonds formed when atoms share electrons—these link amino acids in peptides.
Covalent bonds
Strong chemical bonds formed when atoms share electrons—these link amino acids in peptides.
Cross-linking
The process of bonding two chains of molecules, often used to stabilize peptide structures or gels.
Cyclization
The formation of a ring structure in a peptide, which can improve stability and bioactivity.
Cytokine
A signaling protein that regulates immunity, inflammation, and cell communication—some peptides mimic or block them.
Cytoplasm
The fluid inside cells where most biochemical processes occur, including peptide interactions.
Cytoprotection
The ability of certain compounds to protect cells from harmful substances or damage.
Cytoskeletal proteins
Proteins that give cells structure and help with movement, often interacting with signaling peptides.
DNA synthesis
The process by which cells copy their DNA in preparation for cell division and growth.
De novo peptide design
The creation of new peptides from scratch using computer models or lab synthesis, rather than modifying existing ones.
Decapeptide
A short peptide consisting of exactly 10 amino acids.
Degradation
The breakdown of peptides or proteins into smaller fragments or amino acids.
Denaturation
The unfolding or loss of structure in a protein or peptide, usually due to heat, chemicals, or pH changes.
Dendritic cells
Immune cells that help detect pathogens and present them to other immune cells for a response.
Denovo sequencing
Determining a peptide’s amino acid sequence without using a reference—often done via mass spectrometry.
Dihedral angles
The angles between two planes in a peptide backbone that determine its 3D shape.
Dimerization
The process by which two peptide or protein molecules bind together to form a functional pair.
Disordered proteins
Proteins or peptides that lack a stable 3D structure under physiological conditions but still perform biological functions.
Disulfide bonds
Strong bonds between sulfur atoms of cysteine residues that help stabilize peptide and protein structures.
Docking
A computer-simulated method of predicting how a peptide binds to a target, such as a receptor or enzyme.
Dopaminergic
Related to the neurotransmitter dopamine; peptides affecting this system may influence mood, motivation, or reward.
Downregulation
A decrease in the number or activity of receptors on a cell, often in response to overstimulation.
Drug affinity complex (DAC)
A modification that extends the half-life of certain peptides by helping them bind more strongly to carrier proteins in the blood.
Dynamic equilibrium
A state where opposing processes (like peptide synthesis and degradation) occur at equal rates, keeping levels stable.
Dyslipidemia
An imbalance of lipids (fats) in the blood, such as high cholesterol or triglycerides—some peptides are studied to address this.
EPR (Electron paramagnetic resonance)
A technique used to study the structure and dynamics of molecules with unpaired electrons, including some labeled peptides.
Elastin
A protein in connective tissue that provides elasticity and resilience; often targeted in skin and anti-aging peptide research.
Electrophoresis
A lab technique that separates peptides or proteins based on their size and charge using an electric field.
Electrostatic interactions
Attractive or repulsive forces between charged parts of molecules, important in peptide binding and structure.
Endocytosis
The process by which cells take in substances like peptides by engulfing them in a membrane.
Endogenous peptides
Peptides that are naturally produced by the body, such as insulin, oxytocin, or BDNF.
Endoplasmic reticulum
A cellular organelle involved in protein and peptide synthesis, folding, and transport.
Enkephalin
A naturally occurring peptide that acts as a pain-relieving neurotransmitter in the brain and nervous system.
Enzyme inhibitors
Molecules that slow down or block the activity of enzymes; some peptides act as selective inhibitors.
Enzyme kinetics
The study of how quickly enzymes catalyze reactions, often used to evaluate how peptides interact with biological systems.
Epidermal growth factor (EGF)
A peptide that stimulates cell growth, proliferation, and wound healing.
Epimerization
A chemical change that flips one part of a molecule into a mirror image, sometimes affecting peptide activity.
Epithalon
A synthetic peptide studied for its potential to support cellular aging and telomere maintenance.
Epitopes
Specific regions on a molecule that are recognized by antibodies, often used in immune-related peptide studies.
Essential amino acids
Amino acids that the body cannot make on its own and must be obtained from diet or supplementation.
Ester bonds
Chemical linkages found in some peptide conjugates or modified amino acids.
Exocytosis
The process by which cells release substances, including peptides, by merging a vesicle with the cell membrane.
Exonuclease
An enzyme that removes nucleotides one at a time from the end of a DNA or RNA strand.
Exosomal peptides
Peptides found inside or on the surface of exosomes—tiny vesicles involved in cell communication.
Extinction coefficient
A measure of how strongly a substance, like a peptide, absorbs light at a given wavelength—used in quantifying samples.
FGF (Fibroblast growth factor)
A family of peptides that stimulate cell growth, healing, and tissue development.
Fibrillar aggregates
Long, thread-like structures formed when misfolded proteins or peptides stick together—often studied in neurodegenerative diseases.
Fibrinogen
A blood plasma protein that helps form blood clots; peptides sometimes interact with or mimic parts of this molecule.
Fibroblast
A type of cell that produces collagen and plays a central role in wound healing and tissue repair.
Fibrosis
The thickening or scarring of tissue due to excessive collagen production, which peptides may help regulate.
Fluorescent labeling
A technique where peptides are tagged with fluorescent molecules to track their movement or interactions in research.
Fluorogenic peptides
Peptides that emit fluorescence only when cleaved or activated, used in assays to detect enzyme activity.
Fold stability
A measure of how stable a peptide or protein’s 3D structure is under different conditions.
Folding intermediates
Temporary shapes that peptides take on while folding into their final structure.
Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET)
A method to measure the distance between two parts of a molecule—often used to study peptide interactions or structure changes.
Fragments
Smaller pieces of a peptide or protein, either naturally occurring or produced through cleavage in research or digestion.
Free energy landscape
A map of all possible shapes a peptide can fold into, used to understand how stable or reactive it is.
Free radicals
Highly reactive molecules that can damage cells—some peptides act as antioxidants to neutralize them.
Functional domains
Specific regions of a peptide or protein that carry out particular biological functions.
Fusion peptides
Peptides created by combining parts of two or more proteins or compounds to gain new properties, often used in drug delivery or research.
G-Protein signaling
A cellular communication process where receptors activate G-proteins to trigger internal responses—commonly targeted by peptides.
GPCR (G-protein coupled receptors)
A large family of cell surface receptors that peptides often bind to in order to initiate a biological effect.
GH secretagogues
Compounds, including certain peptides, that stimulate the body to release growth hormone naturally.
Gastrin
A peptide hormone that stimulates acid production in the stomach and supports digestion.
Gel filtration chromatography
A lab method used to separate peptides or proteins based on size using a porous gel.
Gene expression
The process by which genetic information is used to create proteins or peptides in cells.
Glucagon
A peptide hormone that raises blood sugar by signaling the liver to release stored glucose.
Gluconeogenesis
The creation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, often stimulated during fasting or by metabolic peptides.
Glucoregulatory peptides
Peptides that help manage blood sugar levels by influencing insulin or glucagon pathways.
Glutamate
An amino acid that also functions as a key excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Glutamine
An amino acid involved in immune support, muscle recovery, and gut health.
Glycation
A process where sugars attach to proteins or peptides, potentially leading to aging and cellular damage.
Glycopeptides
Peptides that have sugar molecules attached which can affect how they function and interact in the body.
Glycoproteins
Proteins or peptides that are chemically linked to sugars, often playing roles in signaling and immune response.
Glycosylation
The attachment of sugar chains to peptides or proteins, influencing stability, recognition, and function.
Growth factors
Naturally occurring peptides that stimulate cell growth, division, and repair.
Growth hormone (GH)
A peptide hormone that supports tissue growth, fat metabolism, and recovery, often targeted by GH secretagogues.
H-bond donors and acceptors
Atoms in a molecule that either give (donors) or receive (acceptors) hydrogen bonds—critical for peptide folding and binding.
Heat shock proteins
Protective proteins that help cells survive stress by stabilizing other proteins and aiding in proper folding.
Heme proteins
Proteins containing a heme group (like hemoglobin), often involved in oxygen transport or redox reactions.
Hemostasis
The process that stops bleeding by forming blood clots—certain peptides may influence this response.
Hepatocytes
The main functional cells of the liver, often targeted in metabolic and detox research involving peptides.
Hepatoprotection
The preservation of liver function or prevention of liver damage—some peptides are studied for this role.
High-affinity binding
Describes a strong, specific interaction between a peptide and its target, such as a receptor or enzyme.
High-throughput screening
A method for quickly testing many peptide candidates or compounds for activity using automated systems.
Histidine
An essential amino acid involved in enzyme function and pH regulation, and commonly found in peptide sequences.
Histone modifications
Chemical changes to histone proteins that affect gene expression—some peptides can mimic or influence this process.
Homeostasis
The body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions, such as temperature or pH, which peptides often help regulate.
Hormone analogs
Synthetic compounds that mimic natural hormones, often designed to improve stability or activity—many peptides fall in this category.
Hybrid peptides
Engineered peptides that combine segments from different sequences to gain specific effects or improve performance.
Hydration shell
A layer of water molecules surrounding a peptide, which influences its stability and interaction with other molecules.
Hydrogen bonding
A weak but essential force between molecules that helps stabilize peptide and protein structures.
Hydrogen-deuterium exchange
A lab technique that studies protein folding or binding by replacing hydrogen atoms with deuterium.
Hydrolysis
The chemical breakdown of a compound by water, often used to describe how peptides are digested or degraded.
Hydrophilic
Describes a molecule or region that is attracted to water—important for peptide solubility.
Hydrophobic
Describes a molecule or part of a molecule that avoids water—helps drive peptide folding and membrane interactions.
Hydroxyproline
An amino acid derivative found in collagen, important for maintaining connective tissue strength.
Hyperplasia
An increase in the number of cells in a tissue, which some peptides may influence during growth or repair.
Hypothalamus
A brain region that regulates hormones, hunger, sleep, and body temperature—many peptides act here.
Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)
A protein that helps cells respond to low oxygen levels—some peptides modulate HIF pathways in research.
IGF-1 (Insulin-like growth factor-1)
A hormone similar to insulin that promotes muscle growth, tissue repair, and recovery—often influenced by GH-related peptides.
Immunogenicity
The ability of a substance, such as a peptide or protein, to trigger an immune response.
Immunoglobulins
Also known as antibodies, these proteins help the immune system recognize and neutralize harmful substances.
Immunomodulation
The process of adjusting immune system activity—some peptides can stimulate or suppress immune responses.
Incretin
A group of peptide hormones that help regulate insulin release and blood sugar after eating.
Inflammation
A natural immune response to injury or infection; some peptides help regulate or reduce chronic inflammation.
Inhibitory peptides
Peptides that block or reduce the activity of enzymes, receptors, or signaling pathways.
Interleukins
A group of signaling proteins released by immune cells that regulate inflammation and immune responses.
Intracellular signaling
Communication that occurs within a cell, often triggered by peptide binding to surface receptors.
Ion channels
Proteins in cell membranes that control the flow of ions in and out of the cell—some peptides target or modulate these channels.
Ion mobility spectrometry
A lab technique that separates ions, including peptides, based on how they move through a gas under an electric field.
Ionic interactions
Attractions or repulsions between charged atoms or molecules—important for peptide binding and structure.
Isoelectric point
The pH at which a peptide carries no net electrical charge, affecting its solubility and behavior in solution.
Isoforms
Slightly different versions of a peptide or protein that come from the same gene but have variations in structure or function.
Isomerization
A structural change where molecules with the same formula are rearranged—can affect how a peptide behaves biologically.
KPV peptide
A short anti-inflammatory peptide derived from alpha-MSH, studied for its effects on gut healing, immune modulation, and skin health.
Kinase receptors
Cell surface receptors that activate enzymes (kinases) involved in signaling pathways—many peptides influence or bind to them.
Kinetic stability
Refers to how resistant a peptide is to degradation or structural change over time.
Klotho protein
An anti-aging protein involved in regulating phosphate and calcium metabolism—some peptides are studied to influence its pathways.
Krebs cycle
A core energy-producing cycle in cells that breaks down nutrients to generate ATP—some metabolic peptides indirectly support it.
Lactic acid
A byproduct of energy production during intense exercise; certain peptides may help manage or buffer its effects in recovery.
Leptin
A hormone that helps regulate appetite and metabolism—some peptides influence leptin signaling to support weight management.
Ligand binding
The interaction between a molecule (like a peptide) and a receptor, often triggering a biological response.
Lipid metabolism
The body’s process of breaking down and storing fats; several peptides play a role in regulating this process.
Lipopeptides
Peptides that have a lipid (fat) group attached to improve delivery, absorption, or biological activity.
Lipophilic peptides
Peptides that are attracted to or dissolve in fats, often designed for better cell membrane penetration.
Liposomes
Tiny fat-based delivery systems used to transport peptides or drugs through the body more effectively.
Lymphatic transport
The movement of substances like peptides through the lymph system, often used in research on peptide absorption and immune response.
Lysine
An essential amino acid important for tissue repair, immune function, and collagen synthesis—often found in healing-related peptides.
MAPK (Mitogen-activated protein kinase)
A signaling pathway involved in cell growth, inflammation, and survival—often activated or modulated by peptides.
Macrophages
Immune cells that engulf and destroy pathogens or debris; some peptides can stimulate or suppress their activity.
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)
Enzymes that break down extracellular matrix proteins; regulated by certain peptides during tissue remodeling and healing.
Methylation
The addition of a methyl group to DNA or proteins, which can change gene expression—some peptides influence methylation pathways.
Microcirculation
The flow of blood through the smallest vessels (capillaries); certain peptides may help improve or protect microvascular health.
Microtubules
Structural components inside cells involved in transport and division—peptides may affect their stability or function.
Mitochondria
Cellular organelles that generate energy (ATP); mitochondrial-targeted peptides aim to support function and reduce oxidative stress.
Modulation
The act of increasing or decreasing a biological response; peptides often modulate receptors, enzymes, or immune activity.
Molecular weight
The total mass of a molecule, including peptides, typically measured in Daltons (Da).
Monoclonal antibodies
Lab-produced antibodies designed to bind specific targets—sometimes used in combination with or as inspiration for peptide-based therapies.
Motilin
A peptide hormone that regulates gut motility and digestive function.
Multi-pass proteins
Proteins that span the cell membrane multiple times—common in receptors targeted by peptides.
Muscle hypertrophy
An increase in muscle size, often supported by growth factors or anabolic peptides.
Myelin sheath
A protective layer around nerves that helps signal transmission—certain peptides may support its repair in neurodegenerative research.
Myostatin
A protein that limits muscle growth; peptides like Follistatin are studied for blocking its effects.
Myotropic peptides
Peptides that influence muscle activity, tone, or development.
NAD+ metabolism
The biological processes involving NAD+, a molecule critical for energy production, DNA repair, and cellular longevity—often supported by mitochondrial peptides.
Neuromodulation
The regulation of nervous system activity by compounds like peptides, which can influence mood, cognition, or pain response.
Neuropeptides
Small protein-like molecules used by neurons to communicate and regulate functions like pain, stress, hunger, and behavior.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals like dopamine or serotonin that transmit signals between nerve cells; some peptides mimic or modulate their effects.
Nitric oxide synthase
An enzyme that produces nitric oxide, which relaxes blood vessels and improves circulation—targeted in peptide research on cardiovascular health.
Nucleotides
The building blocks of DNA and RNA; not peptides, but closely related in studies involving gene expression and peptide synthesis.
Oligopeptides
Short chains of amino acids, typically 2 to 20 in length, often with signaling or regulatory functions in the body.
Oncogenic peptides
Peptides associated with promoting or regulating the growth of cancer cells; studied in cancer diagnostics and therapies.
Opioid peptides
Naturally occurring or synthetic peptides that bind to opioid receptors and influence pain, mood, or reward systems.
Oral bioavailability
The extent to which a substance, like a peptide, is absorbed and reaches the bloodstream after being taken by mouth.
Oxidative stress
Cellular damage caused by free radicals; many peptides are studied for their antioxidant or protective properties.
PKC (Protein kinase C)
An enzyme that plays a role in many cell signaling pathways, often activated or inhibited by certain peptides.
Pancreatic peptides
Peptides produced by the pancreas (like insulin or glucagon) that regulate blood sugar and digestion.
Paracrine signaling
A form of cell communication where signaling peptides affect nearby cells without entering the bloodstream.
Peptidase
An enzyme that breaks down peptides into smaller fragments or amino acids.
Peptide bond
The chemical link between two amino acids that forms the backbone of all peptides and proteins.
Peptide library
A collection of many different peptides used in screening experiments to identify biologically active sequences.
Peptide sequence
The specific order of amino acids in a peptide chain, which determines its structure and function.
Peptide stack
A research combination of multiple peptides used together to explore potential synergistic or complementary effects.
Pharmacodynamics
The study of how a drug or peptide affects the body, including the mechanism of action and biological response.
Pharmacokinetics
The study of how a compound moves through the body—covering absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule like a peptide, often changing its function or activity.
Plasminogen
A protein involved in breaking down blood clots; certain peptides may enhance or inhibit this pathway in healing or inflammation.
Polypeptide chains
Long chains of amino acids (more than 20), which may fold into functional proteins or act as large peptides.
Post-translational modifications
Changes made to peptides or proteins after they’re synthesized—like phosphorylation or glycosylation—that can alter function.
Protease inhibitors
Peptides or molecules that block enzymes (proteases) that break down proteins—studied in viral therapy and inflammation.
Protein folding
The process by which a polypeptide chain adopts its functional 3D shape—critical for activity and targeted by stabilizing peptides.
Protein-protein interactions
The way proteins (or peptides) physically bind to one another to carry out biological functions.
Quantum efficiency
A measure of how effectively a molecule, like a fluorescently labeled peptide, converts absorbed light into emitted light—important in imaging and assay design.
Quaternary structure
The highest level of protein structure, referring to how multiple peptide chains (subunits) come together to form a functional complex.
RNA translation
The process in which cells use mRNA to build proteins or peptides—part of gene expression.
Radiolabeling
Attaching a radioactive isotope to a peptide for imaging, tracking, or diagnostic purposes in research or medicine.
Receptor activation
The process by which a peptide binds to a receptor and triggers a cellular response.
Recombinant peptides
Peptides that are produced in the lab using genetically modified organisms to mimic naturally occurring sequences.
Regenerative medicine
A field of research focused on healing or replacing damaged tissues—many peptides are studied for their regenerative effects.
Renal clearance
The process by which the kidneys filter out peptides or drugs from the bloodstream for excretion.
Reproductive peptides
Peptides that play a role in fertility, hormone signaling, or sexual health (e.g., kisspeptin, oxytocin).
Retatrutide
A triple agonist peptide under investigation for its potential effects on weight loss, metabolism, and liver fat reduction.
Secretagogues
Substances, including peptides, that stimulate the secretion of hormones or other biological compounds—such as growth hormone secretagogues.
Selectivity
The ability of a peptide to bind specifically to one target (like a receptor) over others, reducing side effects or off-target activity.
Senescence
A cellular aging process where cells stop dividing but don’t die—some peptides are being studied for their potential to delay or reverse this.
Signal transduction
The chain of events triggered inside a cell after a peptide binds to a receptor, leading to a functional response.
Somatostatin
A peptide hormone that inhibits the release of several other hormones, including growth hormone and insulin.
Stacking
The practice of combining multiple peptides or compounds in a research protocol to achieve a specific or enhanced outcome.
Stem cell peptides
Peptides studied for their role in supporting or activating stem cell behavior, potentially aiding in tissue regeneration.
Stimulatory peptides
Peptides that enhance or increase biological activity—such as promoting hormone release or cell proliferation.
Structure-activity relationship (SAR)
The connection between a peptide’s molecular structure and its biological effect—used to improve design and efficacy.
Subcutaneous administration
A method of delivering peptides just beneath the skin, commonly used in research for slow and sustained absorption.
Surface receptors
Proteins on the outer layer of cells that detect and respond to peptides or other signaling molecules.
Synaptic transmission
The process by which nerve cells communicate—some neuropeptides influence or regulate this signaling between neurons.
Synthetic analogs
Lab-created versions of natural peptides designed to improve stability, absorption, or selectivity in research.
T-cell activation
The stimulation of T-cells (a type of immune cell) to respond to threats—certain peptides can help enhance or regulate this process.
Telomerase activation
The stimulation of an enzyme that maintains telomeres (DNA end caps), which is studied for its role in slowing cellular aging.
Tendon repair
The healing and regeneration of tendon tissue—often a target in research involving peptides like BPC-157 or TB-500.
Therapeutic peptides
Peptides used or studied for their potential medical applications, including treatment of metabolic, immune, or degenerative conditions.
Thymopoietin
A thymic hormone involved in T-cell development and immune regulation.
Thymosin
A family of peptides produced by the thymus, involved in immune function and tissue regeneration—examples include Thymosin Alpha-1 and TB-500.
Tissue engineering
A field of research aimed at creating or regenerating tissue using cells, scaffolds, and bioactive molecules like peptides.
Tissue repair
The regeneration of damaged or inflamed tissue—many peptides are being studied for their ability to accelerate this process.
Topical peptides
Peptides formulated to be applied on the skin for effects like wound healing, anti-aging, or inflammation reduction.
Toxicity profile
An assessment of the adverse effects a compound might have—important in evaluating the safety of peptides.
Transcription factors
Proteins that help control which genes are turned on or off—some peptides can influence these pathways.
Transdermal peptides
Peptides designed to penetrate the skin barrier and enter the bloodstream or target tissues beneath.
Transport mechanisms
The ways substances like peptides move across cell membranes or throughout the body.
Trophic factors
Signaling molecules, often peptides, that support the growth, survival, or differentiation of neurons and other cells.
Tryptophan
An essential amino acid that serves as a precursor to serotonin, melatonin, and other important biological compounds.
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
A protein involved in systemic inflammation—some peptides are studied for modulating TNF in autoimmune and cancer research.
Ubiquitination
A cellular process where a small protein called ubiquitin is attached to other proteins, marking them for degradation or regulating their function—some peptides may influence this pathway.
Upregulation
An increase in the number or activity of receptors, enzymes, or proteins—peptides may upregulate certain biological responses to enhance effects.
Uroguanylin
A peptide hormone involved in fluid and electrolyte balance in the intestines, studied for its role in digestion and satiety.
VEGF (Vascular endothelial growth factor)
A signaling protein that promotes the growth of new blood vessels; peptides influencing VEGF are studied for wound healing, tissue repair, and cardiovascular health.
Vaccinology peptides
Peptides used in vaccine development to stimulate an immune response—these are often synthetic fragments of pathogens.
Vasoactive peptides
Peptides that affect blood vessel tone and diameter, influencing blood pressure, circulation, and vascular function.
Vasopressin
A peptide hormone that helps regulate water retention in the kidneys and constricts blood vessels to maintain blood pressure.
Vimentin
A structural protein involved in maintaining cell shape and movement—peptides may influence its role in inflammation or cancer.
Wound healing peptides
Peptides studied for their ability to accelerate tissue regeneration, reduce inflammation, and promote skin or soft tissue repair.
Xenoestrogens
Synthetic or natural compounds that mimic estrogen in the body; some peptides are studied for their potential to block or regulate these effects.
Xenografts
Tissues or cells transplanted from one species to another—used in research, sometimes involving peptide treatments to reduce rejection or promote healing.
Yolk peptides
Bioactive peptides derived from egg yolk, studied for antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immune-supporting properties.
Zinc finger proteins
A family of proteins that use zinc ions to stabilize their structure and bind to DNA—some peptides are designed to interact with or mimic these for gene regulation.
Zwitterionic peptides
Peptides that carry both a positive and a negative charge at the same time, which can influence their solubility and interaction with biological membranes.